Table 1 Type of antibodies (23 publications)
From: Understanding neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and their implications in clinical practice
Study | Study location | Study design | Samples taken (serum/plasma) | Tests conducted | Type of NAbs | Other information |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lagerqvist et al. [46] | Stockholm, Sweden | Case series (n = 278) | Serum, plasma | RDTs, IFA, platform-based assays | IgG, IgM | RDTs can detect both IgG and IgM, allowing for the identification of recent and past infections |
Goel et al. [47] | Philadelphia, PA, USA | Case series (n = 44) | Serum, plasma | ELISA, virus neutralisation assay, flow cytometry and cell sorting, BCR sequencing | IgG | Primary vaccination induced significant increase in IgG levels, further enhanced by the booster dose |
Vickers et al. [48] | Iowa City, Iowa, USA | Case series (n = 11) | Serum, plasma | CLIA, virus neutralisation assay, ELISA | IgG | 10 patients had an average spike-specific IgG level of 4166 AU/mL (range 1235–7854). The non-vaccinated antibody positive subjects screened for this study had an average of 81.7 AU/ml. (n = 109) |
Yadav et al. [35] | Maharashtra, India | Animal research study | Serum | Clinicoradiological analysis, histopathological examination, immunohistochemistry, virus isolation, ELISA | IgG | IgG levels were detectable from 3rd week post immunisation and were found increasing till the 35th day (7 DPI). Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG specific to RBD protein showed a high level of antibody response in the vaccinated group at 28th day post immunisation and 7 DPI |
Valdez-Cruz et al. [39] | Mexico City, Mexico | Meta-analysis | Serum | Nil | IgG, IgM, IgA | IgM accumulation is observed within 7Â days PSO. IgA titre increases principally between 8 and 21Â days PSO. Median time of IgG appearance is 14Â days PSO. A significant relationship has been demonstrated between serum titres of anti-S IgA and IgG and the survival of patients in a critical condition |
Long et al. [29] | Chongqing, China | Case series (n = 285) | Serum, plasma | MCLIA, RT-PCR | IgG, IgM | Within 19 days PSO, 100% of patients tested positive for IgG. Around 20–22 days PSO, the proportion of patients with positive virus-specific IgM peaked at 94.1%. Both IgG and IgM titres plateaued within 6 days following seroconversion |
Wang et al. [19] | Chongqing, China | Case series (n = 30) | Serum, plasma | Virus neutralisation assays, MCLIA | IgG | SARS-CoV-2–specific NAb titres were low for the first 7–10 days PSO and increased after 2–3 weeks. The median peak time for NAbs was 33 days PSO. NAb titres increased over time in parallel with the rise in IgG levels |
Zhao et al. [28] | Shenzhen, China | Case series (n = 173) | Plasma | ELISA, IgM-ELISA | IgG, IgM | The seroconversion time of Ab and IgM and IgG Abs appeared consecutively, with a median seroconversion day of 11, 12, and 14, respectively |
Garcia-Beltran et al. [49] | Boston, USA | Case series (n = 113) | Serum | ELISA, high-throughput SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus neutralisation assay | IgG, IgM, IgA | Serum IgG Abs appeared almost simultaneously with or sometimes even before serum IgM and IgA Abs PSO. The highest levels of IgG and IgA Abs targeting RBD, and spike were found in severely ill COVID-19 patients who were intubated or had passed away, but there were no significant differences for IgM |
Crawford et al. [50] | Seattle, Washington, USA | Case series (n = 32) | Serum, plasma | RT-qPCR, virus neutralisation assay, ELISA | IgG, IgM, IgA | At 30 days PSO, hospitalised patients with severe illness exhibited stronger IgG, IgA, and IgM binding reactions than asymptomatic or symptomatic non-hospitalised patients |
Margherita Bruni et al. [51] | Milan, Italy | Case series (n = 16) | Serum | ELISA, multiplexing analysis of sera cytokines | IgG, IgM | All COVID-19 positive subjects tested positive for the presence of IgG Abs. A few subjects were IgM negative or with an antibody concentration close to the detection limit of the Spike and RBD assay, as compared to the N protein |
Seow et al. [40] | London, United Kingdom | Case series (n = 65) | Serum | ELISA | IgG, IgM, IgA | 51.6% of subjects showed synchronous seroconversion to IgG, IgM, and IgA, whereas some individuals showed singular seroconversion to IgG (9.7%), IgM (9.7%) and IgA (9.7%) |
Zhang et al. [31] | Wuhan, China | Case series (n = 39) | Serum | RT-qPCR, ELISA | IgG, IgM | Both IgM and IgG titres were relatively low or undetectable on day 0. On day 5, IgM positive rate increased from 50 to 81%, whereas IgG positive rate increased from 81 to 100% |
Iyer et al. [38] | Boston, USA | Case series (n = 343) | Serum, plasma | ELISA | IgG, IgM, IgA | From days 5 to 14, there was a sharp rise in RBD-specific Abs of all isotypes. IgG levels continued to rise until day 25 after PSO. IgA and IgM responses peaked less than a week earlier than IgG and then declined toward concentrations measured in pre-pandemic samples |
Figueiredo-Campos et al. [27] | Lisbon, Portugal | Cohort study (n = 2998) | Serum, plasma | ELISA, PCR | IgG | 73% of subjects who did not have an IgG response within the first week showed a robust response seven days later (days 9–14). The remaining 27% of subjects still did not show an IgG response in the second week after PSO |
Marklund et al. [34] | Gothenburg, Sweden | Cohort study (n = 47) | Serum | ELISA, CLIA, flow cytometry, SARS-CoV-2 neutralising antibody assay | IgG | There were significantly higher concentrations of IgG Abs in patients with severe symptoms (mean 107 AU/ml) than in subjects with mild symptoms (mean 65 AU/ml) within 35 days PSO |
Cervia et al. [32] | Zurich, Switzerland | Cohort study (n = 173) | Serum | ELISA, RT-qPCR, SARS-CoV-2 microneutralisation assay | IgG, IgM, IgA | The mean periods between reported symptom onset and serum collection were 13.5 days in the group of subjects with mild COVID-19 and 20.2 days in the group with severe COVID-19 |
Yang et al. [52] | Shenzhen, China | Case series (n = 479) | Serum | RT-qPCR, ELISA | IgG, IgM, IgA | IgM, IgG, IgA, total antibody, and NAb seropositivity rates at first post-discharge sampling (median: 24 days post-discharge) in recurrent-positive subjects were 37%, 99%, 62%, 99%, and 88% respectively |
Wang et al. [30] | Guangzhou/Yangjiang/Qingyuan, China | Case series (n = 23) | Plasma | PCR, ELISA, pseudotype-based neutralisation assay, FRNT | IgG, IgM | IgM responses in subjects with severe disease increased within 1–2 weeks PSO and gradually decreased after 4 weeks whereas IgM responses were much lower in mildly ill patients. IgG responses emerged at 10–15 days PSO. Most patients showed high levels of IgG Abs that were maintained for at least 6 weeks |
Dispinseri et al. [53] | Milan, Italy | Case series (n = 162) | Serum | Flow cytometry, virus neutralisation assay, titration assay, infectivity assay, LIPS assay | IgG, IgM, IgA | IgM and IgA binding to the spike proteins were more frequently detected than IgG during the first two weeks PSO. IgM and IgA levels then progressively declined during follow-up |
Marot et al. [41] | Paris, France | Case series (n = 26) | Serum | CLIA, ELISA, virus neutralisation assay | IgG, IgM | 92.3% of subjects had detectable anti-RBD IgG antibodies and 80.8% had detectable anti-S IgG antibodies. Only 42.3% had detectable anti-N/anti-S IgM antibodies |
Wu et al. [14] | Wuhan, China | Case series (n = 349) | Serum | RT-PCR, CLIA, virus neutralisation assay | IgM | The positive rate for IgM-S reached a peak of 95% at week 5 and then rapidly decreased to 0% at week 13 fluctuating below 35% thereafter. IgM-N could be detected in 72% of subjects at week 3 |
Zhou et al. [33] | Hefei, Anhui, China | Case series (n = 165) | Serum | ELISA | IgM | SP–IgM showed a tendency to increase from days 1–28, and was detectable on the first day, with a positive rate of 46% and an OD value of 0.3128 ± 0.2365 from days 1–3 |