Fig. 2

Interfacial adhesion performance of the ACPs. a 180-degree peeling setup for interfacial adhesion energy test. b Adhesion energy for hydrogels bridged by different doses of ACPs. The guidelines were plotted by linear fitting. c Adhesion energies as functions of time for hydrogels (ACPs do not degrade) and stomach pieces (ACPs degrade) bridged by the ACPs. d In vitro biodegradation of ACPs in PBS, PBS with lysozyme and pancreatin solution. e Adhesion energy of various tissues bridged by ACPs. P values are determined by Student’s t-test. f During the 180-degree peeling tests, ACPs elongate and bridge the tissues before the interfacial crack growth. g After peeling off, ACPs remain on both sides of the tissues, indicating that a cohesive failure has gone through ACPs layers. Values in c-e represent mean ± SD (error bars indicate SD; n = 3–5 independent samples). ACPs adhesive cryogel particles, PBS phosphate-buffered saline