Fig. 1

Schematics illustrating the mechanism of ACPs in bridging tissues. a ACPs are applicable at the interfaces between tissues for bridging. Deep herringbone grooves are representative confined and irregular topographies for severely injured tissues, and they are difficult for adhesives to bridge. b ACPs contain polymer networks of chitosan cross-linked with polyacrylic acid. They form hydrogel clusters at tissue interfaces, which bridge separate tissues point-by-point with hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. c The morphology changes of ACPs and the evolution of tissue healing by applying ACPs. After being applied at tissue interfaces, ACPs swell by absorbing residual water, aggregate into adhesive hydrogel clusters, bridge tissues with bonds, and degrade when tissue heals. d The polymer chain evolution and the bond formation of ACPs while applying, swelling/aggregating, bridging tissues, and degrading. e Scanning electron microscope images of ACPs in the pose-preparation state, swelled state, aggregated state, and bridging state. The bridging state is captured after ACPs are used in bridging two pieces of the porcine intestine. ACPs adhesive cryogel particles