Fig. 4

Endocrine alterations in SCI. A lack of physical activity, denervation, autonomic dysregulation and systemic inflammation after SCI leads to significant changes in the endocrine profile of SCI patients. For instance, alterations in different circulatory markers have been found in acute and chronic stages, including impaired glucose, lipid and hormone levels. The hypothalamus, the major endocrine center in the body, is importantly affected after SCI, as are different axes related to this structure. Concomitantly, muscle, bone and adipose tissue present detrimental alterations directly involved in metabolic and endocrine dysfunction. Collectively, these mechanisms are partially responsible for the high risk of different cardiovascular and metabolic alterations in SCI patients. SCI Spinal cord injury; LDL Low-density lipoprotein; HDL High-density lipoprotein; PI3K Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone; rT3 Reverse T3; T3U T3 resin uptake